Head Antlers Wall
Head Antlers Wall
Julian calendar
Motivation
The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months for a total of 355 days. Beyond is a 27-day intercalary month, the mensis Intercalaris was sometimes inserted between February and March. This intercalary month was by inserting 22 days after the first 23 or 24 Days of February formed in the last five days of February, which counted down towards the beginning of March, the last five days of Intercalaris. The Net effect could add 22 or 23 days to the year and make a leap years 377 or 378 days.
After the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years with 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days. On this system, the average Roman year would within 366 days had four years ago, so they drift from an average of one day per year compared to all the equinox or solstice. Macrobius describes a further refinement where for eight years of 24, there were only three leap days 377 days each year. This refinement averages the length of the year to 365 days over 24 years. In practice, intercalations not occur schematically according to these ideal systems, but were determined by the pontiffs. As far as can be determined from the historical evidence, they were much less regularly Propose as these systems ideal. They usually occurred every second or third year, but were sometimes omitted for much longer, and occasionally occurred in two consecutive Years.
If properly managed this system allows them to stay the Roman year, on average, adjusted as a tropical year. However, as the pontiffs were often politicians, and because a Roman magistrate's term corresponded to coincide with the calendar, was that power to abuse the prone position: a pontiff could extend to one years, in which he or his political allies was in office, or refuse to one in which his opponents were extended into force. If too many intercalations were omitted, happening after the Second Punic War, and during the civil war, would quickly drift calendar from the alignment with the tropical year. Moreover, intercalations, because there were often decided very late to know the average Roman citizen often, the date, especially if he were at some distance from the city. For these reasons In recent years, the pre-Julian calendar were later known as "years of confusion" means. The problems became particularly acute in the years of the pontificate of Julius Caesar's before the reform to 6346 BC, when it had only five intercalary days months, while it was supposed to be eight, and even during the five years before the Roman BC 46th For example, Caesar crossed the Rubicon on 10 January 49 BC by the official calendar, but the official calendar was pushed so far away from the seasons, it was actually mid-autumn.
The reform should fix this problem permanently, aligned through the creation of a calendar, to the sun without any human intervention remained.
Julian reform
The first step of reform was to realign the beginning of the calendar year (January 1) to the tropical year 46 BC, by 445 days long, a balance for the insertions, which had been missed during Caesar's pontificate. This year there were already stretched 355-378 days by the inclusion of a regular Intercalary month in February. When Caesar decreed the reform, probably shortly after his return from the Africa campaign in the late Quintilis (July), he added 67 (= 22 + 23 + 22) for several days by inserting two extraordinary intercalary months between November and December. These months are Intercalaris Prior and Posterior called in Intercalaris Letters of Cicero written at the time, there is no basis for the declaration saw that they were sometimes called "Unodecember" and "Duodecember. [Edit] The individual lengths are unknown, as is the position of the Nones and Ides in them. Since 46 BC, was the latest in a series of irregular years, this was extra-long Year, and is referred to as the "final year of confusion". The first year of operation of the new calendar was 45 BC.
The Julian months were by the addition of ten days to a regular pre-Julian Roman year of 355 days, creating a regular Julian formed of 365 days: add two extra days to Januarius were was Sextilis (Augustus) and December, and included an extra day at Aprilis, June, September and November, setting the lengths of the months, the values they hold today:
Months
Lengths up to 45 BC
Lengths from 45 BC
Januarius
29
31
Februarius
28 (leap-year: 23 or 24)
28 (in leap years: 29)
Martius
31
31
Aprilis
29
30
Maius
31
31
Junius
29
30
Quintilis (Julius)
31
31
Sextilis (Augustus)
29
31
September
29
30
October
31
31
November
29
30
December
29
31
Intercalaris
0 (leap year: 27)
(Inserted between the shortened
February and March)
(Repealed)
Macrobius says that had the additional days immediately before the last day of each month to disturb the position of incumbent Roman fasting (days required for certain events) relative to the beginning of the month. However, since Roman dates after the Ides of the month down in the direction Beginning of next month counted, the extension had the effect of increasing the initial value of the counting of days after the Ides. Romans of the time after the ides of the month Born reacted differently to the impact of these changes on their birthdays. Marcus Antonius was his birthday on 14 Day of Januarius, the last date of ad XVII Kal Feb to ad XIX Kal. February, a date that did not exist before. Livia was the date of her birthday unchanged at ad III Kal Feb, which from 28 moved after 30 Day of Januarius, a day that had not previously given. Augustus held on 23 Day of September, but both the old date (ad VIII Kal Oct) and the new (ad IX Kal celebrated in October) were in some places.
The old intercalary month was abolished. The new day was a leap year diem ante up Sextum Kalendas Martias, dated to the rule than ad abbreviated to VI Kal. Mart., Therefore, it is called in English bissextile day. The year in which it occurred was called annus bissextus, in English the bissextile year.
There is debate about the exact position of bissextile day in the early Julian calendar. The oldest direct evidence is a statement of the first century jurist Celsus, who, that there are two halves a 48-hour day states, and that the storage days was the "back" half. An inscription from AD 168 countries, the ad V Kal Mart. was the day after the bissextile Day. The chronicler of the 19th Ideler century argued that Celsus used the term "rear" in a technical way to the earlier of the two days that inscription referring to the entire 48-hour day as the bissextile requires reference. Some later historians share this view. Others, following Mommsen, the view that Celsus with the normal Latin (was and English) means "back". A third view is that neither half of the 48-hour "to Sextum" was originally formally described as intercalated, but that the need to do so arose the concept of a 48-hour day had become obsolete.
There is no doubt that the bissextile Days, finally was the earlier of two days. In 238 Censorinus stated that after the Terminalia (23 February) and was followed by the last five days of February, was inserted iead VI, V, IV, III and PRID. Cal Mart. (This is the 24th to the 28th of the month of February would be in the same year and the 25 to 29 days be in a leap year). So he considered the bissextum in the first half of the doubled day. All later writers, including Macrobius around 430, followed Bede in 725, and other medieval computists (Calculators of Easter) of this rule, as well as the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church until 1970.
During the late Middle Ages days in the month came in consecutive days are numbered order. Consequently, the leap day be viewed on the last day of February in leap years, ie, 29 February, which is his current position.
Leap Year Error
Although the new calendar was much simpler than the pre-Julian calendar, which apparently misunderstood pontifices the algorithm for leap years. It has a leap day every three years instead of every four years. According to Macrobius, was the fault of the outcome of the inventory included, so that the four-year cycle was as as both the first and fourth Year. This led to many leap days. Augustus eliminates this discrepancy after 36 years by restoring the correct frequency. He skipped several leap days in order realignment of the year. After this reform was completefter AD 8 at the Roman calendar latesthe the same as the Julian calendar was proleptic.
The historic sequence of leap years in this period is not explicitly given by an old source, although the existence of the three-year leap year cycle is confirmed by an inscription that dates from 9 or 8 BC. The historian Joseph Scaliger established in 1583 that the Augustan reform was established in 8 BC, and it concluded that the sequence of leap years was 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12, 9 BC, AD 8, 12 etc. This proposal is still the most widely accepted solution. It has sometimes been argued that there is an additional bissextile day in the first year of the Julian reform, ie, 45 BC, a leap year.
Other solutions have been proposed from time to time. Kepler proposed in 1614, used on the same material by Scaliger, that the correct sequence of leap years was 43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10 BC, AD 8, 12 etc. In 1883, the German chronicler Matzat proposed 44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11 BC, AD 4, 8, 12 etc., based on a passage in Dio Cassius that a Intercalary mentions in 41 BC, which allegedly contradicts (Caesar's) was a rule. In the 1960s, Radke argued the reform initiated actually when Augustus Pontifex Maximus in 12 BC was what the order 45 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12 BC, AD 4, 8, 12 etc. With all these solutions Except Radke, the Roman calendar was not aligned to the modified Julian calendar of the later period until 25 February (ad V Kal March) 4th AD On Radke solution The two were aligned on 25 calendar February 1 BC.
In 1999, an Egyptian papyrus published, gives an ephemeris table for 24 BC with both Roman and Egyptian dates. The Roman dates are not the focus of these solutions. A proposed solution to this problem is a fifth-year Sequence: 44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11, 8 BC, AD 4, 8, 12 etc, very close to the proposed by Matzat. This consequence the standard Julian leap year Sequence began in AD 4, the 12th Year of the Augustan reforms and the Roman calendar was finally aligned to the Julian calendar in 1 BC (with AD 1, the first full year of Orientation), as in Radke model. In it, the Roman year also coincided with the proleptic Julian years 32-26 BC, which indicates that a target is part of the realignment the Augustan reform was to ensure that the most important dates in his career, particularly the decline of Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC, were unaffected by his Correction. It also provides novel Dates 45-32 BC, as it was typically one or two days before the day with the same Julian date, the first January of the Roman calendar the first year of the Julian reform of 46 December 31 BC (Julian date). A curious result is that Caesar's assassination on the Ides (15th day) of March 14 March 44 v. BC fell in the Julian calendar.
Month names
Immediately after the Julian reform, the twelve months of the Roman calendar Januarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprilis, Majus, Junius, Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, named and December, as they were before the reform. The old switching month, mensis Intercalaris was abolished and replaced by a single intercalary day at the same point (ie five days before the end of Februarius). The first month of the year Januarius further, as they have been 153 BC had.
The Romans later renamed months after Julius Caesar and Augustus, renaming Quintilis (originally, "the fifth month," with = months March 1), Julius (July) in 44 BC, BC and Sextilis ("sixth month") as Augustus (August) in 8. Quintilis was renamed to honor Caesar, because they the month of his birth. According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius Sextilis was renamed Augustus in honor, because some of the most important events in his rise to power, the its peak in the fall of Alexandria, fell in this month.
Other months were renamed by other emperors, but apparently none of the later changes survived their deaths. Caligula renamed September ("seventh month") as Germanicus, Nero renamed Aprilis (April) as Neroneus, Maius (May) as Claudius and Junius (June) as Germanicus and Domitian renamed September as Germanicus and October ("Eighth month") and Domitian. At other times, in September as Antoninus and Tacitus renamed and November ("ninth month") was renamed as Faustina and Romanus. Commodus was in all the renaming of twelve months after his assumed name (January unique to December): Amazonius, Invictus, Felix, Pius, Lucius, Aelius, Aurelius, Commodus, Augustus, Herculeus, Romanus and Exsuperatorius.
Much more sustainable than the ephemeral month of the post-Roman Emperor Augustus, the adopted name of Charles the Great. He renamed all the months in agricultural OHG. They were up the 15th Century used by more than 700 years after his reign, and continued with some modifications to the end of the 18th Century in Germany and the Netherlands. The names (January-December) were: Wintarmanoth (winter months), Hornung (the month when the male throws his deer antlers), Lentzinmanoth (Lent month) Ostarmanoth (Easter Month) Wonnemanoth (love month) Brachmanoth (plowing month) Heuvimanoth (hay month) Aranmanoth (harvest-month) Witumanoth (wood month), Windumemanoth (vintage month) Herbistmanoth (Autumn / harvest month), and Heilagmanoth (holy month).
The Roman name as are fixed in 8 BC, still in use in North Africa, where Berber farmers using the Julian Calendar in everyday life. Today, they are very Yennair, Febrair, Mars, Ibril, May, Yuniu, Yulius, Ghusht, Shutambir, Ktuber, Nuwambir, Dujanbir, with local variations, they are often in classical Arabic and medieval Arabic texts, when it used to the months of the solar calendar.
Numbered years
The dominant method The Romans identified one years was used for dating in order after the two consuls who took office in the name. Since 153 BC, they had their office on 1 January taken, and Julius Caesar did not change the beginning of the year. So this year was a consular or named the same year. used addition to consular years, the Romans Sometimes the year of the reign of the Emperor, and in the late fourth century documents even after the 15-year cycle of indiction were dated. required in 537, Justinian that future dates must match the name of the emperor and his reign include the year in addition to indiction and the consul, while allowing the use of local periods.
In 309 and 310, and from time to time, then no consuls were appointed. When this happened, was the consular date, a number of years, so-called since the last consul (given "Consular post" from). After 541, only the reigning emperor held the consulate, usually only for a year in his government, and thus post-dating of consular was the norm. Similar post-consular dates were in the West in the early sixth Century known. The system of consular dating, long obsolete, was officially in the legislation of Leo VI abolished, issued in 888th
Only rarely have the Romans many years from the founding of the city (Rome), from urbe condita (AUC). This Method was used by Roman historians to determine the number of years from one event to another, to this day one year. Different historians had several different Dates for the foundation. The Capitoline Fasti, an inscription containing an official list of the consuls, which was published by Augustus, used an epoch of 752 BC. The epoch of Varro, used 753 BC, was adopted by modern historians. Indeed, Renaissance editors often have the manuscripts that it publishes, making the false impression that the Romans counted their years. Most modern historians tacitly assume from the fact that it started on the day the consuls took office, and ancient documents such as the Capitoline Fasti AUC, the other systems you use this in the same way. However Censorinus, writing in the third Century AD, it says, in his Time began the year with the AUC Parilia, celebrated on 21 April, which was regarded as the actual anniversary of the founding of Rome. Because the party with the accompanying Parilia conflict the solemnity of Lent, the observed until the Saturday before Easter Sunday, the early Roman Church does not celebrate Easter after 21 April was.
While the reform Julian originally applied to the Roman calendar, many of the other calendars then used in the Roman Empire were aligned with the reformed calendar under Augustus. This led led to the adoption of several local eras for the Julian calendar, as the era of Actium and the Spanish era, some of which are used for a long time were. Perhaps the best known is the era of the martyrs, was sometimes called Anno Diocletiani (after Diocletian), which were often used by Alexandrian Christians, their numbers Easter during the fourth and 5 Century, and will continue to be used by the Coptic and Ethiopian churches, and an effect of modern Ethiopian calendar.
In the eastern Mediterranean, the efforts of the Christian chronograph as Annianus of Alexandria to date the biblical creation of the world with the introduction of Anno Mundi Periods led to this event. The main one was the Etos Kosmou, during the Byzantine world from the 10th Century and used in Russia until the 1700th In the west Dionysius Exiguus proposed the system of Anno Domini 525th This era gradually spread through the Western Christian world, when the system was adopted by Bede.
New Year
The Roman calendar began the year on 1 January, and this was the beginning of the year after the Julian reform. But even after the local calendar was adjusted to the Julian calendar, they began the new year on different dates. The Alexandrian calendar in Egypt began on 29 August (August 30 after an Alexandrian leap year). Several provincial local calendars were aligned to the birthday of Augustus, 23 September start. This causes the Byzantine indiction year, the Julian calendar used to at first September start, at that time still in use Orthodox Church for the beginning of the liturgical year. When was the Julian calendar in AD 988 by Vladimir from Kiev, I assumed was the year numbered Anno Mundi 6496, beginning on 1 March six months after the beginning of the Byzantine Anno Mundi years with the same number. In 1492 (AM 7000), Ivan III, according to church tradition, moved the start of the year to the first September, so that at the 7000 lasted for only six months in Russia, from March 1 - 31 August 1492nd
During the Middle Ages first January retained the name New Year's Day (or equivalent title) in all Western European countries (with the Roman Catholic church affiliated), continued since the Middle Ages-calendar to the months from January to December (in twelve columns containing 28 to 31 days), as well as the Romans. However, most of these countries began their numbered year on 25 December (the birth of Jesus), 25 March (the Incarnation of Jesus) or even Easter, as in France (see article of the liturgical year for details).
In England, before 1752, was the first January is sometimes treated as the beginning of the new year, for example, by Pepys, while the "year was from 25 March, the Civil or Legal Year. To reduce misunderstandings on the date that it was not uncommon in parish registers for a new year heading after 24 March, for example 1661, which stated he had another item on the end of the following December, "1661-1662". This was to provide the reader to explain that the years were 1661 and 1662 Old Style New Style.
Most Western European countries shifted the first day of their numbered year on 1 January, while she still with Julian calendar, before they adopted the Gregorian calendar, many during the 16th Century. The following table shows the years in which various countries 1 January as the beginning of the year. Eastern European countries, with a population links with the Orthodox Church, began the year on the first September described by approximately 988th
Country
Year from
1st January
Adoption of
new calendar
Republic of Venice
1522
1582
Holy Roman Empire
1544
1582
Spain, Portugal
1556
1582
Prussia, Denmark / Norway
1559
1700
Sweden
1559
1753
France
1564
1582
South Netherlands
1576
1582
Lorraine
1579
1760
Holland, Zeeland
1583
1582
Dutch Republic, except
Holland and Zeeland
1583
1700
Scotland
1600
1752
Russia
1700
1918
Tuscany
1721
1750
British Empire except Scotland
1752
1752
Serbia
1804 [edit]
1918
Debunked Theory about the length of the months
The Julian reform set the lengths of the months to their modern values. However, a scholar of the 13th Century, Sacrobosco suggested another explanation for the lengths of Julian months which repeatedly still widespread, but is certainly wrong. Under the original rules for Sacrobosco the months of the Julian calendar was very regular, alternately long and short. From January to December, length of the months according to the republican Roman Sacrobosco Calendar were:
30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29
He then thought that Julius Caesar has a day, every month, all except February, 11 days, with the year 365 days. A leap day could now be added the extra short February:
31, 29-30 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30
He said Augustus then changed to this:
31, 28/29, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31
so that the length of Augustus would not be less than (And inferior to) the length of Iulius, which are the irregular lengths of the months that are still in use.
There is ample evidence to refute this theory. First, a mural of a Roman calendar before the Julian reform survived, of the literary accounts that were already confirmed in the months of irregular Julius Caesar, before they reformed:
29, 28, 31, 29, 31, 29, 31, 29, 29, 31, 29, 29
In addition, the Julian reform does not change the dates of the Nones and identification. In particular, the Ides were late (show on the 15th instead of 13th) in March, May, July and October that these months always had 31 days in the Roman calendar, whereas Sacrobosco's theory requires that in March, May and July were originally 30 days long and the length of October was changed 29 to 30 days of Caesar and 31 days of Augustus. Further, Sacrobosco theory is explicitly in the third and 5 Century authors Censorinus and Macrobius, and it is not given with seasonal lengths of Varro, objected in writing in 37 BC, before the Augustan reform, given the 31-day Sextilis of the Egyptian papyrus from 24 BC, and with the 28-day February in the Fasti Caeretani, which is dated before the year 12 BC displayed.
From Julian to Gregorian
Main article: Gregorian calendar
The Julian calendar was in general Use in Europe and North Africa from the times of the Roman Empire until 1582, when Pope Gregory XIII of delivery Gregorian calendar. The reform was necessary because too many leap days be added in relation to the astronomical seasons on the Julian system. On average, advance the astronomical solstices and the equinox by about 11 minutes per Year against the Julian year. As a result of the calculation of Easter gradually out of phase with the March equinox. While Hipparchus and presumably were aware Sosigenes the discrepancy, but not right of its value, it was apparently felt to be of minor importance at the time of the Julian reform. However, it is significantly over the Accumulated time: the Julian calendar gained a day about every 134 years. By 1582, it was ten days from the approximation of where he supposedly in 325 during the Council of Nicaea.
The Gregorian calendar was soon adopted by most Catholic countries (eg Spain, Portugal, Poland, most of Italy). Protestant countries followed later, and the countries of Eastern Europe adopted the "new calendar" even later. In the British Empire (including the American colonies), was Wednesday 2 September 1752 to Thursday, September 14, 1752 followed. For 12 years from 1700 Sweden used a modified Julian calendar and the Gregorian calendar in 1753, but Russia remained on the Julian calendar until 1918 (February 1, 1918 February 14) was, after the Russian revolution (the so-called "October Revolution", although it occurred in Gregorian November), while Greece continued to use it until 1924. During this time, the Julian calendar continued to diverge from the Gregorian. In 1700, the difference was 11 days, in 1800, 12, and in 1900, 13, where he remains to 2100.
Orthodox use
Russian icon of the Theophany (January 6) that the most important festival that occurs on the fixed cycle of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar.
Although all Orthodox countries (most of them in Eastern and Southeastern Europe Europe) had the "New Agenda" and 1927 had not adopted their national churches. The "New Calendar" was during a synod in Constantinople Proposed in May 1923, consisting of a part that solar has been and is identical to the Gregorian calendar until the year 2800, and part of the moon Pascha (Easter) in Jerusalem calculated astronomically. All Orthodox churches refused to accept the Lunar part so as to continue to celebrate almost all Orthodox churches Pasha after the Julian calendar (with the exception of the Estonian Orthodox Church and the Orthodox Church of Finland, which allowed to observe the Gregorian Easter). [Edit]
The solar component of the new calendar was only Some Orthodox churches accepted. Those who have accepted, with the hope for the improvement of dialogue and negotiations with the Western denominations, were the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Patriarchate of Alexandria, Antioch, the Orthodox churches in Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Poland, Bulgaria (the last in 1963), and the Orthodox Church in America (OCA although some municipalities are authorized to use the Julian calendar). Thus these churches celebrate the birth on the same day that Western Christians 25th December to the Gregorian 2800th The Orthodox churches of Jerusalem, Russia, Serbia, Georgia, Ukraine, and the Greek Old calendarists and other groups continue to Julian Calendar used in order to celebrate the birth of Christ, 25 December Julian (which is January 7 Gregorian 2100). The Russian Orthodox Church has some parishes in the west, the Celebrate Christ's birth on 25 December Gregorian. transferred to the parishes of the Orthodox Church in America Bulgarian Diocese, both before and after the year 1976 that the diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad, the Orthodox Church in America, were allowed of 25 December Gregorian calendar use. Some Old Calendarist groups in opposition to the state are churches of their home is the great feast of Epiphany (January 6 January Julian/19 Gregorian) use as a day of religious processions and the great blessing of water, to make their case public. [Citation required]
The Oriental Orthodox Churches in general, you use the local calendar to their homeland. However, in the calculation of the Church of the Nativity Feast watch most of the Julian calendar. This was traditionally the sake of the unity of all Christendom. In the West, some Eastern Orthodox churches either the Gregorian Schedule or permits, the birth of Christ according to observe it. The Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church celebrates the birth of Christ as part of the Feast of Epiphany to its traditional Calendar. [Edit]
Berber calendar
In North Africa, the Julian calendar (the Berber calendar) is still in use for agricultural purposes, and is called fellh "farmer" or acjam "not Arabic". The first yennayer is currently equal to 14 January and this is 2100.
See also
Computus
Conversion between the Julian and Gregorian calendars
Dominical letter
Easter
Julian days
Julian year (astronomy)
Mixed-style date
Orthodox Calendar
Week
Notes
^ See Miriam Nancy Shields, "The new calendar of the Eastern churches", Popular Astronomy 32 (1924) 407-411 (page 411). This is a translation of M. Milankovitch, "The End of the Julian calendar and the new calendar of the Eastern churches", Astronomische Nachrichten No. 5279 (1924).
^ L Lühl Fr, the proposal for a common date for Pascha and Easter (Orthodox Christians celebrate Center).
^ On the way to a common date of Easter. (510 March). World Council of Churches / Middle East Council of Churches consultation, Aleppo, Syria.
^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens B., L. The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University Press, 1999, with corrections, reprinted in 2003. Page 669-70.
^ Abcde The letter was not invented J, by 16 Century.
^ W. Stern head, "The Bissextum (JCP 41 (1895) 718 733) available.
^ Nautical Almanac Office of the United Kingdom and the United States. (1961). Explanatory Supplement Ephemeris of London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Page 4,101th
^ Chris Bennett, AUC 709 = 45 BC (every three years, leap-year cycle)
^ AR Jones, "Calendrica II: Date Equations from under the reign of Augustus, "ZPE 129 (2000) 159-166, available
^ Chris Bennett, AUC 730 = 24 BC (Egyptian papyrus) see also CJ Bennett, "The Early Augustan Calendars in Rome and Egypt," ZPE 142 (2003) 221-240 and "The Early Augustan Calendars in Rome and Egypt: Addenda et Corrigenda "ZPE 147 (2004) 165-168.
^ Chronography of AD 354
^ Charles W. Jones, "Development of the Latin Church Calendar, Beda Opera de tenses (1943), 1122, p.28.
^ (Calendar history in Russia in the USSR)
^ Http: / / www.pepysdiary.com/archive/1661/12/31/index.php, Pepys Diary "I sat on my journell for this year end ..."
^ Spathaky, Mike Old Style New Style Dates and the changeover to the Gregorian Calendar.
^ Spathaky, Mike Old Style New Style Dates and the changeover to the Gregorian calendar. "A slash is by far the most common indicator, but sometimes the alternative definitive figures for the year written above and below a horizontal line, like in a fraction (a form not easily reproduced here in ASCII text). Very rarely, a hyphen is used, as from 1733 to 1734th "
^ John J. Bond, "the beginning of the year," Handy Book of Rules and tables for the review of the data with the Christian era, (London: 1875), 91 101.
^ Mike Spathaky Old Style and New Style Dates and the change to the Gregorian Calendar: A summary for genealogists
^ The source has Germany, whose current area during the sixteenth century was an important Part of the Holy Roman Empire, a religiously divided confederation. The source is unclear whether all or only parts of the country made the change. Generally made both Roman Catholic countries the change in a few decades before Protestant countries.
^ Sweden conversion is complicated and has much of the first half 18th Century. See the Swedish calendar.
^ By decree of 16 June 1575. Hermann Grotefend, "Easter beginning" (Easter beginning), era de German Middle Ages and the modern period (chronology of the German Middle Ages and modern times) (18,911,898)
^ 1751 in England lasted only from March 25 to December 31 The following dates January 1 to March 24 1751, which would have been completed, became part of the 1752 report as the beginning of the year was changed from March 25 to January 1.
^ Roscoe Lamont, "The Roman Calendar and its reformation by Julius Caesar ", Popular Astronomy 27 (1919) 583 595. Sacrobosco theory is discussed on pages 585 587.
^ Roman Republican Calendar
^ Nautical Almanac Office of the United Kingdom and the United States, Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1961), 4136th
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Religion and mythology
Time and fate deities Wheel of time Kalachakra Prophecy Dreamtime Kla
Philosophy
Eternal return Event causality eternalism the unreality of time A-series and B-series B-Theory of time
Four Endurantism dimensionalism Perdurantism presenteeism Temporal parts Temporal Finitism
Physical Sciences
Time in physics Spacetime Absolute time and space T-symmetry
Arrow of time Chronon Fourth dimension Planck epoch Planck time Time Domain
Theory of relativity Time dilation Gravitational time dilation Coordinate time physics proper time
Biology
Chronobiology Circadian rhythms
Psychology
Mental chronometry Reaction time Sense of the extensive presence
Sociology and Anthropology
Futures studies Long Now Foundation Time discipline Time use research
Economy
Newtonian time in economics Time value of money Time Banking Time-based currency
Connected Topics
Space Duration Time capsule journey time signature System time Metric time Hexadecimal time Carpe diem Tempus fugit
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Time measurement and standards
Majors
Chronometry Time scale Metrology
Time Portal
International Standards
UTC UT TAI ISO 31-1 DUT1 Leap seconds IERS Terrestrial Time Geocentric Coordinate Time Barycentric Coordinate Time Civil Time 12-Hour 24-Hour Clock ISO 8601 International Date Line Solar time Time zone Daylight Saving Time time difference
Obsolete standards
Ephemeris Barycentric Dynamical Time Greenwich Mean Time Prime Meridian
Time in physics
Spacetime Chronon Cosmological decade Planck epoch Planck time T-symmetry theory of relativity Time dilation Gravitational time dilation Coordinate time period physics Proper time domain continuous time discrete time Absolute time and space
Horology
Atomic clock Hourglass Marine chronometer Astrarium Clock Radio clock Sundial Watch Water clock History timing devices Equation of time Complication Marine hourglass
Calendar
Astronomical Julian Gregorian Islamic Lunisolar Solar Lunar Epact Tropical Intercalation Leap year Years Equinox Solstice seven-day week, week-day name of the calculation of the days of the week Dominical letter
Archaeology & geology
International Commission on Stratigraphy Geologic Time Archaeological dating
Astronomical chronology
Nuclear time scale Precession Sidereal Time Galactic year
Time units
Seconds minutes hours Day Week Fortnight Month Year Decade Century Millennium Jiffy Lustrum Saeculum Shake Tide
Related Topics
Chronology Duration System time Metric time Mental chronometry Time value of money Timekeeper
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Chronology
Major Topics
Astronomy Geology Paleontology Archaeology History
Chronology Portal
Eras and Epochs
Calendar Eras: Ab urbe condita Anno Domini / Common Era Anno Mundi Spanish era Before Present Byzantine era Hijri Egyptian Sothis cycle Hindu units of measurement Hindu Yugas
Regnal year: Canon of Kings King lists Limmu Seleucid era
Era name: Chinese Japanese Korean Vietnamese
Calendar
Pre-Julian Roman Original Julian proleptic Julian Revised Julian
Gregorian proleptic Gregorian Old Style and New Style
Lunisolar Solar Lunar Islamic Chinese sexagenary cycle
Astronomical BC ISO week date
Astronomical time
and techniques
Astronomical chronology Cosmic Calendar Ephemeris Galactic year Metonic cycle Milankovitch cycles
Geologic time scale
and techniques
Deep time Geological history Geological time units: Eons Eras Periods GSSA Epoch dating standards: GSSP
Chronostratigraphy Geochronology Isotope geochemistry Law of superposition Optical dating Samarium-neodymium
Archaeologically
Techniques
Dating methodology
Absolute dating Incremental dating dendrochronology dating archaeomagnetic glottochronology Ice core lichenometry Paleomagnetism Radiocarbon dating Radiometric dating Tephrochronology thermoluminescence from Uranium-lead dating
Relative dating seriation stratification
Genetic techniques
Amino acid from Molecular Clock
Related Topics
Chronicle New Chronology Periodization Synchronous Optic view Timeline Year Zero
Circa floruit
Categories: Julian calendar | Roman Calendar | Julius Caesar Hidden categories: Wikipedia: Missing sources | Articles needing additional references from May 2009 | Articles needing additional references from January 2008 | Articles needing additional references from January 2010 About the Author
I am China Product writer, reports some information about compressor nebulizer , nebulizer machine.
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